The term “Military Operations” covers the activities of the British Army, the Royal Navy, the Royal Air Force, the Merchant Navy and similar organisations. This covers battles and military campaigns, the land / sea based activities of the RN and the land / aerial activities of the RAF.
In many wars the British have commanded units comprised of “foreign volunteers” and an example are the Polish Squadrons of the RAF in WW2. They came under the RAF’s operational command and therefore they reported operationally to the RAF but their administration came under the relevant Government in Exile.
A very brief summary of the types of Operational Records available for the Navy, Army & Air Force are given below. Please note these notes are very brief because having highly detailed notes for all eventualities would require many volumes.
There are also some notes on Naval Research and Development, and RAF / Civil Aviation Research and Development.
British Army Operations
These can be divided into several time periods:
- 1660-1714
- 1714-1815
- 1816-1913
- 1914-1918
- 1939-1945
- Post 1945
1660-1714
The Army (as we know it) can trace its roots to 1660 when a standing army was first formed for the protection of the monarch and to maintain order. The activities of the army for this period are mainly held in the State Papers Series (Domestic, Foreign and Military). King William’s Chest has some records for 1670-1698 and there are a mixture of papers with some covering the Allied Coalition against King Louis XIV of France and the Treaty of Ryswick. There are also some 1710 papers on the North American / Caribbean campaigns against the French and Indian Tribes.
1714-1815
In this period military affairs were managed by the Secretary of State via the Secretary-at-War and the senior officers of the Army. The latter included the Commander in Chief, the Adjutant-General and the Quartermaster-General. The War Office started keeping records of its activities and a summary of these papers relating military campaigns cover:
- State Papers Military / Entry Books / Foreign Military Expeditions
- War Office In-Letters and Papers
- Headquarters Reports – American War of Independence (1775-1783) and the Peninsular War (1810-1814)
- American Rebellion Entry Books
- Papers for India (1757-1796)
- Correspondence for America and West Indies (1710-1784) and West Indies (c. 1699)
- Private Papers – these are for several senior Generals of the time
1816-1913
Before 1855 the Regular Army which included the Guards, the Horse Regiments and the Foot Regiments on the British and Irish establishments was run by the Horse Guards Office in Whitehall. There the Secretary at War, the Adjutant General and the Quartermaster General administered the Army but they had little say in supplying the Army.
The Board of Ordnance was responsible for weapons and ammunition whilst the Commissariat (run via the Treasury) were responsible for food. Uniforms and other necessaries were the responsibility of the Regiment’s Colonel and his officers. The Board of Ordnance was also responsible for the Corps of Artillery, the Engineers and the Wagon Trains. By 1855 it was recognised that this system was deficient and a new system was introduced.
Under the new system the Office of Secretary at War and the Board of Ordnance were abolished and the administration of all arms and the Commissariat were integrated into a new “War Office”.
This complex system of administering the Army is therefore reflected in the surviving record series. In general there are records for:
- Regiments – designation, establishment, stations and movements
- Embarkation and disembarkation returns for units going / returning from overseas
- Details on Establishments
- Marching orders
- Monthly returns of units
Other records cover the Correspondence of the Secretaries of State, Headquarters Papers (covering the Opium War 1840-44, the Russian War 1854-56, the Indian / Sepoy Mutiny 1857-60, the South African War 1899-1902), and the papers assembled by the Director of Military Operations and Intelligence (after 1837). The financial affairs of the Army are split between the Commissariat (pre-1855) and the Treasury (post-1855).
There is a Document Series for Maps and Plans but these are not directly related to operations as they cover forts, barracks and other military establishments. Some Court Martial records for disciplinary affairs survive and there are Private Papers for several famous Generals.
1914-1918
During WW1 each Battalion or unit of a similar size had to keep a War Diary which recorded operations, intelligence reports and other material. They were normally written by a junior officer and often under fire or close to the frontline. They are the best records for individual units and provide lots of background information.
They were kept by British, Dominion, Indian and Colonial Forces in theatres such as France / Flanders, Italy, Gallipoli, Mesopotamia, Palestine, Salonika and Russia. Some Home Service units also kept them as did some Royal Flying Corps units and hospitals. However, the surviving series is not complete for every unit throughout the war so do expect some gaps.
The War Diaries can be useful for tracing officers but other ranks are not always detailed / mentioned unless something unusual happened to them such as being recommended for an award or similar. If a soldier has been awarded the Military Medal or the Meritorious Service Medal then there is a fair chance something will have been noted in the War Diary.
Other WW1 operational records include the Orders of Battle which give the location of each unit on a monthly basis (these are arranged by Division), Papers of the Military Headquarters, Intelligence Summaries, Campaign Maps and several series of photographs.
1939-1945
During WW2 the army, navy and air force operations were integrated to a massive extent so it is possible that papers for a particular operation could be with those for a different arm of service.
The Official Histories compiled by the Historical Section give considerable detail on the direction of the war by the High Command (Prime Minister, Cabinet and War Office Councils / Committees). There are also high level records for Army Headquarters for theatres such as:
- British Expeditionary Force (BEF – France 1939-40)
- North West Expeditionary Force (Norway 1940)
- Home Forces
- Middle East Forces
- Far East
- North Africa, Italy and Southern France 1942-45
- North Africa and the Mediterranean
- Northern Europe (21st Army Group for / after D-Day, 1943-45)
- SHAEF
- East Africa
- Combined Operations (this was an HQ which had representation from all the arms of service)
In a similar process to WW1 all units at Battalion size and above were ordered to keep War Diaries and these were maintained by the unit’s officers. For WW2 they are organised by Command and as units were mobile they often changed Command. Do not expect them to survive for all units and all timeframes as there are gaps.
The War Office Directorates were concerned with the administration of the army and their records can contain information on operations / campaigns. These Directorates covered Operations, Quartermaster General (these are useful for Combined Operations), Artillery, Intelligence, Training, Tactical Investigation, Air Operations, Psychiatry, Staff Duties, Supplies and Transport, and Engineering.
There are Orders of Battle, Organisational Tables and Monthly Returns which help tracing the movements of various units. There are also similar records for enemy forces and the latter can be found in the series for Directorate of Intelligence and Operations.
As in previous eras, there are some Private Papers for well known / senior Generals etc.
Post 1945
There are various record series covering operations between 1945 and roughly 2000. There are published Regimental Histories , records created by the Army and papers by politicians / senior personnel.
In WW1 and WW2 the main unit records were War Diaries but these were replaced in 1946-50 by Quarterly Historical Records and they are filed by theatre (Africa, Austria, Caribbean, Far East, Gibraltar, Home Forces, Malta, Mediterranean, Middle East, Rhine, Trieste). There are campaign records for Palestine (1945-48), Korea (1950-53), Suez (1956), Oman (1957-61) and the Falklands (Operation Corporate 1982). These are the main wars / conflicts since 1945 and this list is not exclusive.
Royal Navy Operations
Almost all records for RN operations are filed in the Admiralty Series (ADM) and they cover naval stations, various theatres of operations, ships, wars / conflicts and “expeditions”. These can be split into the following time periods:
- 1660-1914
- 1914-1918
- 1939-1945
- Post-1945
1660-1914
These generally cover naval battles, orders and instructions from the Admiralty to commanding officers, wartime / peacetime strategy and internal RN correspondence. Over time, various bodies administered the navy and their records are filed under the name of the respective body. However, there can be overlaps between them so it is wise to consider the whole array. These are the most important bodies:
- Board of the Admiralty (c. 1698-1976) – This ran the navy for most of the 1700-1900s and it consisted of up to seven members known as Lord Commissioners (or Sea Lords) and they were headed by the First Lord of the Admiralty. They were often politicians rather than seamen. The earliest records are the In / Out Letters which were mainly correspondence between ships’ commanding officers and flag officers.
- Secretaries of State (1689-1782) – These records are with the State Papers Series and are difficult to research as they may not have been catalogued. Reference to the State Papers indexes is highly recommended.
- The Navy Board (1546-1832) – This was created in 1546. It covered administrative affairs and was to advise the Board of the Admiralty. Until the mid-1600s it focused on all administrative issues but afterwards it concentrated on building / repairing ships and running the dockyards / administering supplies (except for armaments). The Navy Board was absorbed by the Board of the Admiralty in 1832.
- Miscellaneous Correspondence (1563-1956) – This Series often has information on convoys, Arctic Expeditions and the slave trade.
- Station and Fleet Records – These can vary enormously and generally cover internal RN correspondence and reports of proceedings. Stations covered include Africa, Atlantic, Australia, Brazil (South East America), English Channel, China, East Indies, Ireland, Mediterranean, Nore, North America / West Indies, Pacific, Plymouth and Portsmouth.
- Movements of Ships – There are several series that cover ships’ movements and this depends mainly upon the era.
- Ship Building and Repair – These cover construction / repair, armaments, ships’ specifications and designs.
1914-1918
These records usually allow the tracing of ships’ movements, naval battles, photographs (usually ships or other “official” RN images) etc.. Often the best place to start is the “Official Histories of the War” of which there are 5 volumes on operations alone. The (TNA) Archive’s catalogue covers battles, theatres of operations, and ships’ names as well as lots of other information. Sometimes when doing “operations searches” of the TNA catalogue using the date(s) of the action can prove very useful.
Other records that are useful are ships’ / submarines’ Logs, ships lost in the war, Station Records, photographs (mainly of ships), Admiralty correspondence and Admiralty publications. The RN Division kept War Diaries and papers for the RNAS may be with either Admiralty (ADM) or Air Ministry (AIR) papers.
1939-1945
During WW2 the three armed services worked very closely together. They functioned with the civil government and with other Allied forces. As a result of this material on naval operations may be with papers not directly relating to the RN (i.e. outside the Admiralty ADM Series). Like the WW1 records the best starting place is often the Official Histories and if possible, the unpublished version of The War at Sea.
After this searches for operations, battles, theatre of operations, ships, convoys and specific dates can be recommended. Depending upon the topic required the records for the Naval High Command, those for Fleets / Stations / Squadrons, ships’ / submarines’ / other vessels’ logs, and submarine incidents / attacks / patrol reports etc. could prove useful.
Naval officers and their ships can be traced via the Navy List (confidential version). The twice weekly “Pink Lists” give ships in ports / locations of RNAS squadrons whilst the “Red Lists” are similar for minor war vessels in Home Waters. The “Green Lists” cover Landing Ships, Landing Craft and similar vessels in Home Waters and the “Blue Lists” relate to shipbuilding. There is a Series for RN ships lost / damaged and those for the Merchant Navy are in a separate Document Series.
Convoys and related operations were vital in the war and there are many Convoy Reports. These can cover both RN and Merchant Navy vessels. The Arctic Star (a retrospective British WW2 Campaign Medal) was introduced in 2012 and RN / Merchant Navy operational research can significantly aid any claim for this medal. If it is possible to prove that an individual served on specific ships and that these ships (whilst the individual served on them) were involved in Arctic Convoys / patrols etc. then a claim for this medal can be supported.
Naval air services have their own Document Series for Fleet Air Arm, and Coastal Command. Combined Operations are dealt with in the Admiralty / War Office / Air Ministry records and / or Combined Operations HQ papers. Naval Intelligence was very important and they have their own Document Series within those of the Admiralty (ADM), the Government Code and Cypher School, and Intelligence Reports passed to the Prime Minister.
There are many photographs of RN ships, battle damage to ships etc. and views of the (D-Day) Mulberry artificial harbours but unfortunately these photographs are not indexed very well so searches / specific images can be difficult. Other photos can be located at the Imperial War Museum and the National Maritime Museum.
Post-1945
Searches using the name of an operation / campaign / conflict / a specific battle / theatre of operations / ship are recommended. It is not wise to restrict these searches to the Admiralty (ADM) Series as papers could be filed under other Government bodies (War Office, Air Ministry etc.). There are specific series for the Korean War, the Cod War (a “fishing” conflict in Iceland 1958-61), and the Falkland War. Overseas fleet and Station records include those for the Mediterranean and the East Indies as well as the post-WW2 Naval Commander-in-Chief in Germany (up to 1949).
There are records for the Cabinet, Ministry of Defence (First Sea Lord, Board of the Admiralty, Chiefs of Staff Committee), the Defence Board and Defence Council, the Defence Secretariat / Chief of Defence Staff / Central Staffs, and Ministers and Secretaries of State.
On a more individual level there are Court Martial / Boards of Inquiries, papers for the Royal Navy and the Royal Marines, and Fleet Air Arm operational papers including Squadron activities, aircraft accidents etc.. Other records are held by the National Maritime Museum, the National Museum of the Royal Navy, the Royal Marines’ Museum, the Fleet Air Arm Museum and the Royal Navy Submarine Museum.
Naval Research and Development
The National Archives (TNA) has various records on the research / development / production of ships, their arms, and other technologies. Examples include torpedo development and mine-sweeping technologies. The National Maritime Museum also holds development records so both Archives need to be considered.
Naval R&D records are often found within papers for the various research establishments, committees, and laboratories. Some records are filed under a particular establishment and there was a huge array of them including:
- Central Dockyard Laboratory
- Central Metallurgical Laboratory
- Engineering Laboratory
- Materials Laboratory
- Naval Aircraft Materials Laboratory
- Oil Laboratory
- Fuel Experimental Station
- Research Laboratory
- RN Cordite Factory
- RN Torpedo Factory
- Anti-Submarine Experimental Establishment
- Chemical Advisory Panel / Chemical Department
- Valve Development Department
- Miscellaneous Weapon Development
- Experimental Works / Diving Unit / Stations
- Gunnery Establishment
- Marine Engineering Establishment
- Mine Design Department
- Naval Construction Research Establishment
- Surface Weapons Establishment
- Underwater Countermeasures / Detection / Explosion Research / Weapons etc.
R&D for pre-1914 was often developed in conjunction with the Private Sector and there is a name and subject index to such technological developments. There are some pre-1850 records covering building / fitting, and repair of naval ships and the National Maritime Museum also has a major collection of such records. From 1852 major subject files (known as Case Papers) cover armaments, inventions / suggestions, experiments, machinery, ship design, mines and the “landship” (land based tanks).
WW1 provided a huge stimulus to R&D and in July 1915 the Board of Invention and Research was established. This was replaced by the Directorate of Scientific Research and Experiment in 1918 and it coordinated the various experimental stations run by the numerous technical departments.
During 1946 the Department of Scientific Research was re-organised to form the Royal Naval Scientific Service. However, by 1971 the R&D establishments were placed under the Controller in the Executive (Ministry of Defence) and reliance was placed again on private industry.
Records for the design of warships are under the Series for the Director of Naval Construction and there are papers on submarine development and detection. Weapons and munitions development was critical and their records span 1855 to the late 1900s. Some are under the Board of Ordnance records (pre-1855) whilst others are under the Naval Ordnance Department (after 1891). The Torpedo and Mine School published annual reports covering the operation of mines, minesweeping, net defenses, anti-submarine weapons, demolitions and torpedo aircraft.
Inventions and inventors were often given awards between 1894 and 1925. After WW1 finished there were many claims by inventors who believed that their invention had been exploited by the Government and these are filed by the company involved or the individual inventor’s name. They span for example ship technology, torpedos, submarine technology, sea-planes etc.
Other non-Admiralty R&D records are in the Treasury Papers, the Committee of Imperial Defence and the Cabinet Office’s Scientific Advisory Committee (1939-1945).
Royal Air Force Operations
These records cover both the airborne operations of the RFC / RNAS which were the precursors to the RAF, and the RAF itself. The most recent operational records available are about 30 years’ old (dating to the mid-1990s).
The RAF was administered by the Air Ministry between 1918 and 1964. After 1964, it came under the Ministry of Defence. Prior to the RAF / Air Ministry being created in 1918 the air forces were managed rather haphazardly under the Air Committee (from 4/1912), the Joint War Air Committee (from 2/1916), and the Air Board (from 5/1916).
The RAF’s Command Structure was based on Squadrons, Wings, Stations, Groups, Commands (during WW2) and Headquarters. This was a similar structure to the RFC which used Squadrons, Wings, Brigades, Stations and Divisions. Operational records can be spread over the papers for the Air Ministry (AIR), War Office (WO), Admiralty (ADM), the Ministry of Defence, and the Cabinet Office (CAB) depending upon the requirements of the project.
The main series for operations are the Operations Record Books (ORBs). They were kept at Squadron level and above and they can be described as a “diary” of the unit’s operations. Usually they can be very detailed.
ORBs can come in three formats:
- Summary of Events (Form 540) – this is often a narrative description of the unit’s activities. The chances of these records surviving is relatively high.
- Detail of Work Carried Out (Form 541) – these can have information on operations such as targets / objectives and they can have “flight information”. The latter can specify flight details such as aircraft serial number / type, crew details, take off / landing times, accident details (if appropriate) etc..
- Appendices – these support the records in Forms 540 and 541 (see above). They can contain a huge variety of records such as operational orders, miscellaneous reports, investigations into accidents, photographs from operations etc.. It is impossible to give a full potential contents list as the contents of the Appendices can vary enormously (from unit to unit and over different date periods). Like the Form 541’s these records do not always survive.
The three different ORB types do not always survive for every unit / time period. Normally, the Form 540 does survive but the Form 541’s and the Appendices can vary. The only way to know if they have survived is by doing the research.
In addition, there are records for crashes, casualties, and combat reports. RAF Stations and airfields kept their own records and these can include maps, photos and text descriptions. Some may also include notes on airfield construction.
The TNA also has some records for the South African Aviation Corps, the Australian Flying Corps, the Royal Australian Air Force, the Royal New Zealand Air Force, the Royal Canadian Air Force and the United States Army Air Force.
RAF / Civil Aviation Research and Development
There was a large range of central government bodies involved in aeronautical research and development. These include:
- the Air Ministry (1918-64)
- the Air Registration Board (1937-73)
- the Air Transport Licensing Board (1960-72)
- the Ministry of Aircraft Production (1940-45)
- the Ministry of Aviation (1959-67)
- the Ministry of Aviation Supply (1970-71)
- the Ministry of Civil Aviation (1945-53)
- the Ministry of Supply (1939-59)
- the Ministry of Supply and Aircraft Production (1945-46)
- the Ministry of Technology (1964-70)
- the Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation (1953-59)
Records can cover issues such as a particular aircraft type / designs, the activities of aeronautical research organisations (e.g. Royal Aircraft Establishment), aircraft research projects, aircraft specifications etc.
Many of the WW1 / WW2 R&D topics are covered by the Air Ministry (1918-64), the Ministry of Aircraft Production (1940-45) and the Royal Aircraft Establishment (1918-88). There were other research establishments, committees, and councils and these are project specific. Records were kept on the operation and development of aircraft types such as notes on experiments, and evaluations of the technological state of enemy (foreign) aircraft.
The above is a very short summary of the records available and the full scope of the records is vast.